Geschlechterkonstruktion in der Biologie
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Summary
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construction link building takes place in biology, in many ways. Best known are postulated bankers life and casualty biological and biomedical Trip Foundry studies of gender differences in humans. Thus, research about the gender differences in the brain, hormones and konstatieren regarding behaviors and Chetan Kapur characteristics quick personal loans of numerous women cavite homes and men, ounce of gold </ span> Frequent topics in popular media. The Same Applies To The Hominidenentwicklung. Less known but very revealing, are descriptions of animals that exhibit biological gender constructions. All themes have a heteronormative fresno carpet cleaners </ span> perspective price of silver.
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Gender construction of biology
Bio-medical constructions of gender == ==
Sexual development in developmental biology === ===
The sciences of Merchant Services Protection Plan biology, Spotsylvania reckless driving medicine and psychology is a high authority and power of definition in gender discourses. An examination of a critical gender perspective, the bio-medical and psychological Chensun Mills </ span> research and testimony about the sexual development of man, so heteronormative foundations in the theoretical Dr Susan Lim Singapore foundations, methods and interpretation of data visible. (Schmitz, 2006)
(This post will soon be posted by Sigrid Schmitz.)
"Sex hormones"
Anne Fausto-Sterling argues that no more of "female" and "male" sex hormones talking, but "growth hormones". This could be taken into account more the fact that the here considered as important hormones - found in each case both "women" as well as "men" - testosterone, estrogen. You assume Dan Delpiano </ span> important functions in organ and tissue development, by no means limited to the beauty schools of america complaints formation of the genital tract.
(This post will soon be posted by Smilla Ebeling)
=== === Brains of sex assignments
For a long time looking for differences of male and female powers of understanding, they finally looked into the bankers life brain research. More and more shows, however, that differences are due to different socialization. It has an impact, whether a person early or late to learn a second or third language, if a person learns to use both hands in sync, for example, to make iphone photography music, etc. - and this one writes itself into the brain. Whether it is about going beyond gender differences in the brain could not been demonstrated.
To see current introductory considerations:
- Schmitz, Sigrid: How does the brain's gender? About the Geschlechterdeterminismus in brain research and approaches to its deconstruction. Forum on Science, 4 (2004). Online: http://www.linksnet.de/de/artikel/19193
Compare to historical considerations:
- Voss, Heinz-Jürgen (2010): Making Sex Revisited: deconstruction of gender from biological and medical perspective. Transcript Verlag, Bielefeld. ISBN 978-3837613292
(This post will soon be posted by Sigrid Schmitz)
=== === Hominid evolution
This post will soon be posted by Sigrid Schmitz
== == Gender construction in zoology
Gender formations and bisexuality are also discursively produced in zoology. Some examples from the animal kingdom - from protozoa to mammals - are intended to illustrate these constructions. Simultaneously, a variety of sexrn and reproduction of forms beyond the two sexes and sexual reproduction seen. For example, in zoology unisexual species are described, which propagate through various forms of parthenogenesis (parthenogenesis). Meanwhile, also reported same-sex sexual behavior and inter-and transsexuality in the animal kingdom. Generally speaking, therefore, not only in relation to same-sex sexual behavior and a transgendered "Animal Exuberance" (Bagemihl 1999) or "Evolution's Rainbow" (Roughgarden 2004).
Gender differences in e-coli bacteria
In biology, females are defined as organisms that produce the Jeniger-few, large, immobile gametes. However, males produce Relatively many, small and mobile gametes. Unicellular organisms DO NOT produce sex cells and can follow any definition of these biological sex assigned. The biologist Bonnie Spanier (1995) found gender in the literature descriptions of bacteria, Which nevertheless have a. The gender assignment work following dimensions: E-Coli batery exchange genetic segments - so-called R-plasmids - from (the letter F stands for fertility). These Wine Clubs </ span> R-plasmids have not all individuals of the E-coli bacteria and can be transferred from one bacterium to another. The R-plasmids are as a male characteristic, giving the bacterium as males and females as the receiving bacterium. In this example, asexual organisms are assigned to sexual characteristics, with two sexes and sexual reproduction can be constructed.
The description of the bacteria as females and males thanh lap cong ty, thanh lap cty, thành lập công ty, thanh lap doanh nghiep, thành lập doanh nghiệp, dang ky kinh doanh, dich vu ke toan, dịch vụ kế toán, bao cao thue, nha khoa tu van du hoc contribute to the idea that the world of organisms is - from individual learning - structured bisexual. (Spain 1995: 56f) The gender structure is accompanied by a hierarchical structuring of the sexes, Which Corresponds to the traditional Western gender relations. Because the R-plasmids have some biologists to follow a Particularly important role in the mean As technology of molecular biology, recombinant DNA technology: "The E. coli F (male) plasmids deterministic mines the difference between male and female strains, and encodes the link building service </ span> proteins required for cell-to-cell contact during sexual mating These plasmids are of great use to experimental molecular biologists - they are essential tools of recombinant DNA technology." (Darnell, Lodish and Baltimore 1986: 137) This appreciation of the male had the Spaniard, according to biologists, however, take back again.
Gender-specific behavior of bighorn sheep
Biological studies of behavior can result, the gender of the bighorn sheep can not be detected externally. Even the bighorn sheep could distinguish between females and males DO NOT differentiate. Nevertheless, the behavioral biologist Wolfgang Wickler (1969) in a position to describe the typical behavior for females and males. Opers to follow show the roles of both genders and of young adult males. The females behaved outside the breeding season as young males and during the two-day breeding season as aggressive older males. On these two days attacking the female goats. If they are defeated by a male, so they let them Aufreiter. Subordinate rams acted against the superior as the females in the breeding season. Since young bucks and females in heat were the strongest preference for males, The Latte constantly surrounded by bighorn sheep, Which behaved females in heat.
Winder is in his remarks specific behaviors of males and females as given, quoting socio-cultural notions of gender relations: Males are aggressive, attack and ride it up and let Aufreiter females. Access to females, they are not aggressive, but they behave as a male '. More precisely quietly behave the descriptions of female moth as a result, more males, and that as young males, when they leave and how Aufreiter older when they attack. The behavior of female bighorn sheep equivalent - so curlers - the principle of a male, whose development of the male lamb for a high-level block was inhibited. Female behavior and male standing on a low for a high rank. Winder from here Evaluate the behavior of females in different ways: First, there is actually a wrapper for specific female behavior. Females can behave just like a male. On the other curlers locates female behavior on an average, arrested development stage.
According to this misogynistic depiction of feminine behavior reported behavioral biologist Valerius Geist (1971) that the bighorn sheep, rams fight each other for so long, until one behaves like a female, that gives up and leaves Aufreiter the winner. The aim of the discussion was not the injury or expulsion of the enemy, rather it is a matter to treat the losers as a female, to submit to speak, and ride up Spirit identified here with defeat and subjugation of female behavior. He does leave the Aufreiter is Represented as a female behavior, may show the males also. Winder Aufreiter let a behavior is contrary to the spirit characteristic of young males, the females may also show. In both cases, defeat and submission in connection with females being negotiated. The overall picture shows that it is neither for nor for the aggressive behavior Aufreiter Aufreiter and let one's original gender, instead, these behaviors as the biological assumptions in the representations.
The biologist Bruce Bagemihl (1999) focused Explicitly same-sex sexual behavior of bighorn sheep and worked out that a typical behavioral trait Aufreiter let the paint what. A few blocks designated as Bagemihl transvestite behavior, because they verily for female behavior. Thus, the males were outside the breeding season in the female group really pure And thus avoid that other Aufreiter bucks for them. The imitation of feminine behavior is used in that case, the avoidance of same-sex sexual behavior and is not the stereotype of male homosexuality. (Bagemihl 1999)
Equal and opposite-sex sexual behavior of king penguins
Verhaltensbiolog_innen determine the sex of the animals observed occasionally on the Kopulationsverhalten. For example, were loud Bagemihl (1999) in a study of five royal penguins because of observed in-nom-mener copulations by males and females following name - and gender - assigned: Andrew, Bertha Caroline, Eric and Dora. The name meant that the Biolog_innen realized in same-sex copulation further observations. Since they considered this unlikely, however, they checked the gender of the individual penguins, with the result that only one gender was determined correctly. The names have been changed. Ann was from Andrew, from Bertha Bertrand, from Caroline Charles, from Erik Erika and Dora Dora remained. In some new observations, both supposedly same-sex copulation presented as opposite-sex and opposite-sex copulations supposedly out to be homosexual. In addition, from the same-sex copulation of Bertha and thanh lap cong ty, thanh lap cty, thành lập công ty, thanh lap doanh nghiep, thành lập doanh nghiệp, dang ky kinh doanh, dich vu ke toan, dịch vụ kế toán, bao cao thue, nha khoa tu van du hoc Caroline same-sex copulation by Bertrand and Charles. (Bagemihl 1999) The hetero-normative perspective Biolog_innen implied in this example that Aufreiter is always performed by males and initially led to an erroneous sex determination. The unthinkable homosexual copulations among penguins led the Biolog_innen for detailed inspection of the sexes, what same-sex sexual behavior could not rule, but confirmed.
Hermaphroditism or "transsexualism"
In zoology, various forms of hermaphroditism (hermaphroditism) are described. One form is for example the simultaneous Hermaphroditismus. These hybrids exhibit the same for female and male reproductive organs. A well known example is the earthworm. Another form of androgyny is the consecutive hermaphroditism: These organisms are counted, in chronological order - that in turn - have both male and female sex organs. A good example is a fish, the blue head (Thalassoma bifasciatum) is called. The blue-heads are born as females and change sex when they have a certain body size. It's called a protogynous hermaphroditism. Her gender was controlled social change, ie are just a few large males are present, are some of the many females from males. (Krebs & Davis 1984)
It also discusses protandrische hermaphrodites, such as the white-backed anemone fish (Amphi-prion akallopisos) or the clown fish (Amphiprion ocellaris), in the classic film, Finding Nemo 'was known. These fish are born as males and are converted to large animals than for females. They, too, the sex change is socially controlled, because the white-backed anemone fish live in monogamous pairs. If a large female removed from a pair, then the remain-end figure converts into a woman-chen will be added to and a smaller male. (Krebs & Davis 1984) In the film, Finding Nemo 'the sex change happens, however, although the death of Nemo's mother is a starting point of Nemo's adventure story. Bagemihl denotes the described forms of gender change as transsexuality. They were not aberrant or rare phenomena, but consistent gender formations, the diversity and complexity of the many illustrated gender of the animal kingdom. (Bagemihl 1999, 39)
Same-sex sexual behavior of lizards racing
The females of Cnemidophorus Rennechsenart Unipar be planted as pure Weibchenart to obligate parthenogenesis and continues copulating with each other. Biolog_nnen describe same-sex copulation with terms that are consistent only for the two sexual reproduction and not for the Cnemidophorus Unipar females, such as 'female-and male-like' behavior, 'pseudo-males', 'Pseudokopulationen' and quotes questioned allocation to sexual or reproductive form. In these descriptions, a species with only one sex and one unisexual reproduction so that a continuous relationship to bisexuality and heterosexuality is produced. Both concepts are upheld here that the unisexual reproduction is negated, however discursively. The following quote from a biology textbook, illustrates this very clearly: "The top female ('M') shows similar male, the lower ('W') bitch-like behavior. 'M' mounts the mating willing 'W' and takes with his snout skin of the neck 'W'. A few minutes later, swinging 'M' his tail under 'W' and carried the Pseudokopulation "(Wehner & Gehring 1990: 464). In this example, other inscriptions of the Western socio-cultural gender model in zoological animal descriptions visible.
Thus, the Aufreiter females and males are considered active-like animals, while the Aufreiter leave termed passive and females is similar behavior. This is where the dichotomy of gender-coded male activity and female passivity, an expression. This structure does not fit with the central theme of biological reproduction, because in this respect, those females are considered active, which to lay their eggs and get away with it for reproduction, while females take the Aufreiter no eggs and are called now passive. Both the Aufreiter than the females, which can be Aufreiter, thus simultaneously described as active and passive. As a result, we have complicated texts, that is,s facilitate the assignments of the respective females but not difficult. Here, the pure Weibchenart the bipolar gender conception and the two sexual reproduction is imposed. Simultaneously, the unisexual disappears from view. (Ebeling 2002)
=== === Fish Amazon
The fish species Poecilia formosa is also the biological descriptions to follow a pure planning Weibchenart dar. These females by gynogenesis - another form of obligate parthenogenesis - continued. They copulate with alien, closely related males, whose sperm fertilized the egg does not, but only to stimulate the egg division. Deutsch The common name of this is pure Weibchenart Amazonenkärpfling. With this metaphor, references to the Greek myth of loan modification </ span> the Amazons are made. Metaphor analysis illustrated that the females of an active, aggressive, and is attributed to the threatening alien male reproductive behavior. So here again are traditional Western notions of socio-cultural gender and sexuality expression on. Interesting is also the way in Which this pure discursive Weibchenart is negated. For one thing it is in the context of a myth out of scientific rationality. Second, the Amazonenkärpflinge want the content on the level of metaphor, like a defeated woman folk of the Amazons. Actually, it can not give Parthenogenten. (Ebeling 2005)
The Bdelloidea - An evolutionary scandal
More pure female species are found in the group of Bdelloidea - quite a large group of microscopic rotifers. Biological theories of evolution to have a result, all forms of parthenogenesis, the short-term advantage to a very high reproductive rate. In the long term, they would bring but the more serious disadvantage of a low capacity to adapt to a constantly changing environment with them because their genome only change little. Parthenogenten die so quickly from evolutionary biology and are considered as 'dead end' called. The Bdelloidea are estimated at an age of several million years and are considered, an evolutionary scandal '(Smith 1986). Parthenogenten there must be not so. (Ebeling 2005) thanh lap cong ty thanh lap cty thành lập công ty thanh lap doanh nghiep thành lập doanh nghiệp dang ky kinh doanh dich vu ke toan dịch vụ kế toán bao cao thue nha khoa tu van du hoc
=== === Parthenogenesis and men In particular, in popular science, but also in scientific representations of these pure species females are the gender ratio of people under negotiation. (Ebeling 2002) This is the title of a book chapter that deals with water fleas, aphids, "The abolition of males (parthenogenesis)" (Buddenbrock, 1953: 50). In scientific texts is the lack of males as 'dramatic'. In a popular science text on the Bdelloidea it says: "Men are now completely obsolete?" Genetics and reproductive medicine are evolving rapidly. A peaceful, sexless mother-daughter-corporation, in which the women themselves, becomes feasible utopia. Finally, a whole class in the animal kingdom, the Bdelloidea from the order of rotifers, in thirty million years ago produced a single male and at the same widespread success on the planet "(Miersch 1999: 68).
Similarly, parthenogenesis among vertebrates with a 'self-confidence shattered male' and 'the fate of the man' is linked. Parthenogenesis may be read as an exclusion of males. But thanh lap cong ty, thanh lap cty, thành lập công ty, thanh lap doanh nghiep, thành lập doanh nghiệp, dang ky kinh doanh, dich vu ke toan, dịch vụ kế toán, bao cao thue, nha khoa tu van du hoc only against the background of a male-centered perspective and the primacy of bisexuality is a menace to understand. (Ebeling 2002) The following quotes illustrate both the explicit reference to men as well as the interactions between social and scientific discourse: It is on the rotifers, they represent little man with her life without a 'response to the liberation movements of women'. Similarly, the pure Weibchenart Poecilia formosa had the 'battle of the sexes to an end' and the females would live in a 'feminist paradise'. Here not only the reproduction of the rotifer females in the context of women's movements is made, but the abolition of the men is formulated as a goal of the battle of the sexes or the women's movement. The metaphor of a feminist paradise implies that a life without men would mean for feminists, a paradise. Here are statements about the pure species and females also made about the gender ratio in humans by the antagonistic gender ratio is both naturalized and reinforced. (Ebeling 2005)
Literature
- Bagemihl, Bruce: Biological Exuberance. Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. New York. 1999, 39
- Buddenbrock, Wolfgang. The love life of animals. Bonn 1953, 50
- Darnell, James; Lodish, Harvey & Baltimore, David: Molecular Cell Biology, 1st ed, New York. 1986, 137
- Ebeling, Smilla, Schmitz, Sigrid (eds.): Gender Studies and Natural Science: introduction to a complex interplay. Wiesbaden. 2006
- Ebeling, Smilla: If I take my hormones, I become an animal. On the history of the 'sex hormones'. In: Ebeling, Smilla, Schmitz, Sigrid (eds.): Gender Studies and Natural Science: introduction to a complex interplay. Wiesbaden. 2006, 235-246
- Ebeling, Smilla: Parthenogenesis in the animal kingdom or the negation of unisexual reproductive forms. In: Gendered Subjects. Innsbruck 2005, 84-99
- Ebeling, Smilla: The reproduction of gender relations. The metaphorical field of Parthenogense in evolutionary biology. Mössingen-Talheim. 2002
- Fausto-Sterling, Anne: Sexing the Body. Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. New York. 2000
- Spirit, Valerius: Mountain Sheep. Chicago. 1971, 190
- Krebs, John R. & Davis, NB: Introduction to Behavioural Ecology. Stuttgart, New York. 1984
- Margulis, Lynn & Sagan, Dorion: What is Sex? New York. 1997
- Miersch, Michael: The bizarre sex life of animals. A popular dictionary of eel to Zebra. Frankfurt / Main 1999
- Roughgarden, Joan: Evolution's Rainbow: Diversity, gender, and sexuality in nature and people. Berkeley. 2004
- Schmitz, Sigrid: Men and women brains. Myth or reality? In: Ebeling, Smilla, Schmitz, Sigrid (eds.): Gender Studies and Natural Science: introduction to a complex interplay. Wiesbaden. 2006
- Schmitz, Sigrid: hunters and gatherers. Evolutionary history of the Incarnation. In: Ebeling, Smilla, Schmitz, Sigrid (eds.): Gender Studies and Natural Science: introduction to a complex interplay. Wiesbaden. 2006
- Schmitz, Sigrid: How does the gender of the brain? About the Geschlechterdeterminismus in brain research and approaches to its deconstruction. Forum on Science, 4 (2004). Online: http://www.linksnet.de/de/artikel/19193
- Smith, John Maynard: Contemplating life without sex In Nature: 324 1986, 300-301
- Spanish, Bonnie: In / partial Science: Gender Ideology in Molecular Biology. Bloomington, Indianapolis. 1995
- Voss, Heinz-Jürgen: Feminist critique of science. The example of the natural science biology. In: Ulrike Freikamp et al. (Eds.): Criticism of method? Research methods and social criticism (text 42). Karl Dietz Verlag, 2008, p.233-252, ISBN 9783320021368 (online as a pdf-file [1])
- Voss, Heinz-Jürgen (2010): Making Sex Revisited: deconstruction of gender from biological and medical perspective. Transcript Verlag, Bielefeld. ISBN 978-3837613292
- Wehner, Rudiger & Gehring, Walter: Zoology. 22nd completely revised edition. Stuttgart New York. 1990
- Winder, Wolfgang: The Sexual Code: The Social Behavior of Animals and Men Garden City. 1969, 28-31f
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